Basic Approaches And Contemporary Issues In Leadership Management Essay

Essential Approaches And Contemporary Issues In Leadership Management Essay The primary complete possibility model for authority was introduced in 1967 by Fred Fiedlers. His possibility theory was the first to distinguish how situational factors interrelate with the attributes and practices of pioneers to affect the adequacy of administration. The hypothesis recommended that the idealness of the conditions is the thing that chooses how powerful the undertaking and the conduct of the individual arranged pioneer will be. Idealness is built up by (1) the measure of trust and regard that aficionados or rather devotees have for their pioneers; (2) how much the duties of people who are underdog to the pioneer can be sorted out and the exhibition estimated; and (3) the force that the pioneer has over the compensations of supporters. The conditions is most reassuring when subordinates have trust and regard for their pioneers, regard and trust the pioneer, the activity is incredibly organized, and the power over remunerations and discipline is held by the pioneer (Ba rnett, 2010). The exploration done by Fiedler indicated that pioneers who were task-arranged were progressively significant and powerful when there was either an amazingly great or incredibly troublesome situation, in any case, pioneers who were individual arranged were increasingly important if the conditions were either reasonably positive, or horrible. This theory didn't generally recommend that in different circumstances, the pioneer could get acquainted with their initiative styles, but instead that pioneers who had different styles would be progressively important when they are placed in circumstances that go with the authority style that they like (Barnett, 2010). Fiedler is of the supposition that the initiative style of an individual is fixed in such a case that the condition has a requirement for somebody who is task-arranged however the individual who is in that authority position is relationship-arranged, at that point either the pioneer must be changed or the circumstance should be mo dified (Robbins, Judge, 2009, pg. 292-293). Following the appraisal of the fundamental initiative style by means of the rent favored associate (LPC) survey, Feidler perceived three potential measurements that, as per his contention, depict the primary situational factors that build up the viability of authority (Robbins Judge, 2009). These three elements incorporate the accompanying: Pioneer part relations: The degree to which the adherents trust and like the pioneer, and the status and enthusiasm of the supporters to be guided by the devotee. Assignment structure: The degree to which the devotees work has been depicted as either composed or confused; and Position power: The pioneers power by uprightness of the situation in the association and the degree to which, as the pioneer, the individual in question can execute power on devotees with the goal that they obey and get the pioneers direction and initiative (Feidlers possibility model, 2009). Feidlers position is that pioneer part relations are either acceptable or poor, task structure is either high or low and position power is either solid or week. The more advantageous the connection between the pioneer and supporters the more composed the activity will be and the stronger the situation of intensity the more order the pioneer will have (Robbins, Judge, 2009). Defender has as of late rethought his first speculation which he called Cognitive Resource Theory. With this hypothesis he puts accentuation on the job that pressure plays in situational unfavorableness and how the mental ability and expertise of the pioneer impact the way that the person in question responds to pressure. The genuine significance of this speculation us that pressure is the enemy of sensibility, and it is hard for pioneers, among others, to think balanced and have the option to break down circumstances when they are under pressure. Defender et al noticed that the sound ableness of a pioneer correspond in a positive way and their exhibition is better when they are managing low pressure circumstances than when they are managing high pressure; so the whether the keenness and skill of an individual has any bearing on the presentation of authority is dictated by the degree of stress. Different investigations validated the way that when the degree of stress is low and the p ioneer educated supporters on what he required done, astuteness was vital to the adequacy of the pioneer, yet on the off chance that the condition was a high pressure one, at that point insight didn't help as much in light of the fact that the pioneers perspective was stressed. In a similar way, on the off chance that the pioneer doesn't mention to his adherents what he needs done, at that point mind don't help due to his hesitance (Robbins, Judge, 2009). The suggestion of Feidler is that associations utilize and pick people with the fundamental astuteness, know how, and comprehension, and afterward permit those people to work under those circumstances that let them utilize the assets that they have subjectively. Also, the inclination that the pioneer has of being in charge of the situation and the degree of stress that he is encountering is basic (Carter, III, 2006). What kind of pioneer trademark (progressively insightful versus progressively experienced) is generally appropriate for high-stress episodes? What sort of pioneer (progressively clever versus progressively experienced) is most appropriate for low-stress arranged episodes? When offering your responses give an itemized case of a police authority position that would fit the administration style of increasingly insightful and more experienced.â â The pioneer trademark generally appropriate for high-stress occurrences is progressively experienced. Feilders Cognitive Resource Theory proposes the centrality of situational stress and keenness in relating to the adequacy of initiative. Stress makes it difficult for people to think in a legitimate way. Subsequently, on the off chance that a circumstance keeps on getting increasingly upsetting, at that point subordinates working and judgment will compound and breakdown. This speculation predicts that people or gatherings drove by pioneers who are keen will work better under circumstances that are low pushed, and people or gatherings that are driven by normal pioneers will work better in circumstances that are high pressure. While this suspicion may appear to contend against perceptiveness, there is a balanced avocation: Infertile, canned, pre - orchestrated, secure, or named goals tend to turn out to be better when the circumstances are unpleasant, in light of the fact that they don 't depend on either the pioneers or adherents thinking, mental aptitude, and innovativeness to work accurately. Then, when there is an accessibility of time and assets increasingly masterful arrangements are probably going to deliver a progressively good final product. Basically, an accomplished pioneer must have the option to think rapidly and fundamentally while having the option to settle on the spot judgment calls at a minutes notice. Comprehend that this speculation isn't suggesting that scholarly initiative isn't a significant factor in the prosperity of the organization! It is just recommending that occasions that are distressing are not the most great occasions for the aesthetic taking care of issues. The productivity of gatherings can be best kept up when there are unpleasant circumstances by creating and completing timetables which can be trailed by representatives however much as could reasonably be expected. The key point here is that scholarly dynamic tend to compound under pressure (Mills, 1995). The administration style that I think would suit the initiative style of increasingly experienced is that of a Swat Team Leader. As per Feidler, people or gatherings that are driven by normal pioneers will work better in circumstances that are high pressure. In the event that for example there is a prisoner circumstance which in its own privilege is an upsetting circumstance since it takes long periods of attempting to talk down the prisoner taker, and the smack chief settles on a choice to enter the premises where the prisoner taker and prisoners are housed, it takes a great deal of fortitude to experience an entryway realizing that the guilty party is on the opposite side holding back to execute you. Once in a while if the prisoner taker won't converse with specialists they will be ignorant of the quantity of prisoner takers inside and furthermore if there are any weapons inside it is difficult to state what number of and what kind. The pioneer generally appropriate for low focused on arranged occurrences is increasingly smart. Feidlers hypothesis expresses that on the off chance that supporters are driven by and person who is shrewd, at that point they will work better under low focused on conditions since working and judgment will be better as people will at that point have the chance to think sensibly and reasonably while comprehending the circumstance that may have introduced itself. Fiedler noticed that experience debilitates working in circumstances that are low pushed. In any case, it assumes a job in circumstances that are high focused on (Mills, 1995). The position that strikes a chord when I consider the more canny pioneer is that of a wrongdoing scene specialist. Wrongdoing scene agents research and explains violations. They invest energy building up a theory about what occurred, when it occurred, why it occurred, and who did it. They look to dissect data found at the wrongdoing scene and other data given to them as far as witnesses and classified sources. I imagine that the most unpleasant occasions of this sort of employment could accompany things like when specialists need to deal with a case for extended periods or when one needs to go to court and affirm as a specialist witness, or when there is an absence of proof, other than that I would need to state that the standard degree of worry for this position is low. As indicated by Feilder, stress makes it hard for people to think in a legitimate way, so in the event that agents are continually under pressure, at that point they won't have the option to think unmistakably while understanding odds and ends of data to tackle wrongdoings. Next, in your own words, characterize, examine, and give a situation in a CJ association of Transactional Leadership, Transformational Leadership, and Visionary Leadership. Transactiona

Ligers Informative Speech -- Tiger Lion Breeding Animals Essays

Ligers Informative Speech The clasp you just observed is from the well known film 'Napoleon Dynamite.' Many of you have most likely observed it previously however I wagered you never contemplated any of it as being true, did you? All things considered, despite the fact that the depiction was somewhat off, ligers truly exist. As indicated by Encyclopedia Americana, ligers are a half and half cross between a male lion and a female tiger (otherwise called a tigress). It is about unimaginable for them to exist in the wild in light of the fact that most lions live in Africa and most tigers live in Asia, anyway under the correct conditions they can be reproduced. Much of the time the tiger and the lion must be raised together to beat any common hatred between their species, anyway ligers have likewise been coincidental. In China a couple were delivered misleadingly as analyses, however frequently they happen as mishaps among hostage creatures in zoos or meandering in safari parks. Conscious hybridization is disallo wed in many zoos, however. In 2001 three liger fledglings were conceived in a zoo directly here in Wisconsin. For space reasons attendants put a lion and a tiger in a similar fenced in area and one day they discovered three small whelps. Liger whelps don?t typically resemble their dad. They have striped like their tiger mother, however are lighter in shading. As they get more established their stripes will blur. Raising liger whelps is troublesome in light of the fact that nobody ever knows whether the guardians will perceive the liger fledglings as their own, and furthermore it is hard for them to make due all alone. As per Hybrid B... Ligers Informative Speech - Tiger Lion Breeding Animals Essays Ligers Informative Speech The clasp you just observed is from the famous film 'Napoleon Dynamite.' Many of you have most likely observed it previously however I wagered you never pondered any of it as being accurate, did you? All things considered, despite the fact that the portrayal was somewhat off, ligers truly exist. As per Encyclopedia Americana, ligers are a half and half cross between a male lion and a female tiger (otherwise called a tigress). It is about inconceivable for them to exist in the wild in light of the fact that most lions live in Africa and most tigers live in Asia, anyway under the correct conditions they can be reproduced. Much of the time the tiger and the lion must be raised together to defeat any characteristic animosity between their species, anyway ligers have likewise been coincidental. In China a couple were created misleadingly as tests, yet regularly they happen as mishaps among hostage creatures in zoos or wandering in safari parks. Intentional hybridization is restricted in m any zoos, however. In 2001 three liger whelps were conceived in a zoo directly here in Wisconsin. For space reasons attendants put a lion and a tiger in a similar fenced in area and one day they discovered three small offspring. Liger fledglings don?t typically resemble their dad. They have striped like their tiger mother, however are lighter in shading. As they get more seasoned their stripes will blur. Raising liger offspring is troublesome in light of the fact that nobody ever knows whether the guardians will perceive the liger whelps as their own, and furthermore it is hard for them to make due all alone. As per Hybrid B...

Huge Gulf Revealed in Private State Oxbridge Entry

Huge Gulf Revealed in Private State Oxbridge Entry The OE Blog Long-awaited figures revealed this week finally showed for the first time the rates of Oxbridge entry on a school-by-school basis. The shocking statistics unveil an enormous divide between state school and private school entry, with just five schools sending more pupils to Oxbridge over a three year period than nearly 2000 others put together. Those five include elite private schools Eton, Westminster, and St Paul’s Girls and Boys. The figures, released by the Sutton Trust charity, were most shocking because they revealed that the private schools getting vastly greater numbers of pupils into Oxbridge often had very similar A-level results to corresponding state schools with much lower levels of Oxbridge entry. Old Oxbridge Excuses Disproved It has long been the defence of Oxford and Cambridge Universities that the reason for their poor state: private pupil ratio is not their own admissions process, but a failure on the part of the state school system to provide students with high enough A level grades to win Oxbridge places. Yet this data blows that long-accepted argument out of the picture, provoking a high level of concern about private school bias in the Oxbridge admissions system. The data showed that for schools with an average of 851-900 A-level points per student (900 points being equivalent to 3 ‘A’ grades), 50% of private school pupils gained places at “highly selective universities” compared to just 32% from state schools. Oxbridge Admissions The figures raise serious questions about the Oxbridge interview process. Admissions tutors claim to look vigilantly for signs of promise from state school pupils who may not have achieved quite as highly as their independent school peers. Instead the charity’s findings seem to suggest that private school pupils, drilled and prepared to perfection with hours of one-to-one interview practice, are given an unfair advantage over state school pupils who have achieved the same A-level grades. Is it as Bad as it Sounds? There are two important mitigating factors to be considered when analysing the data collected by the Sutton Trust. The first is that the data showed that independent schools with higher Oxbridge success rates also put in a greater number of applications than their similarly achieving state counterparts. This might shift the cause of the discrepancy away from the Oxbridge admissions tutors and onto the state school system, where bright applicants are perhaps less encouraged to apply for top universities than they might be. The second discrepancy, vociferously pointed out by the elite Russell Group of Universities, and supported by Professor Anna Vignoles from the Institute of Education, is that despite having a similar grade-point average, schools may still have vastly different grades per pupil, which could affect Oxbridge entry chances. For example, one school with an 851-900 point average may have a handful of excellent pupils with fantastically high grades, with the rest achieving much lower, whilst another school with the same average may have a more consistent group of average results, thereby getting fewer pupils into Oxbridge. It is also true that many state school pupils are less clearly informed about the importance of avoiding ‘soft’ subjects like business studies and photography at A-level, which could account for high grades but fewer Oxbridge places. However, the enormity of the state: private school Oxbridge divide is such that even taking these discrepancies into account in no way negates the statistics; it merely lessens the gap. As Vignoles admits; “In our research not all of that gap disappears even when you account for subject and choice at A-level”. These damning revelations come at the worst possible time for the government, just as they are desperately fighting to insist that their new £9000 tuition fees policy will not disadvantage students from poorer backgrounds in getting to university. Amidst accusations of a rich-biased new policy that will send higher education “back into the dark ages” with the return of the old university: polytechnic divide, these figures should be taken very seriously indeed.

What Are the Main Benefits of Immigration to the United States of America

What Are the Main Benefits of Immigration to the United States of America? When the question is about immigration, usually it is related to movement of people from one country to the other one. To talk about the Unites States of America, the notion of immigration is highly-debated in different areas, especially in the political one. For a long time, immigrants were the ones who created the history of the whole country. The United States of America is the country, which was founded by immigrants long time ago, but even nowadays a great number of people still flock here. Why do they come? They are looking for political freedom and an opportunity to achieve the aims they failed to achieve at home. No matter what, the USA is still the land of opportunities. Among the reasons why people prefer to live in the United States of America is the one that they are planning to make up a successful marriage which is quite possible. They are looking for better employment. The majority of immigrants agree to change their place of living in order to forget about poverty and leave behind unemployment in their mother countries. They hope to find better fortune elsewhere than at home. One of the main beneficial factors which causes immigration of millions of people is the education factor. People want to study at the corruption-free good colleges and universities and they are able to do that in America. To talk about illegal immigrants, in the United States of America they get an opportunity to earn more money, than at their homelands and have relatively better life style. To cut the long story short, it would be better to name the basic and the most important factors, which attract people to go to the USA and make living in this country much more beneficial, than in their motherland: political liberty, religious broadmindedness, better economical opportunities, high standard educational level.

The Cause and Effects of the Great Depression Essay

Many people speculate that the stock market crash of 1929 was the main cause of The Great Depression. In fact, The Great Depression was caused by a series of factors, and the effects of the depression were felt for many years after the stock market crash of 1929. By looking at the stock market crash of 1929, bank failures, reduction of purchasing, American economic policy with Europe, and drought conditions, it becomes apparent that The Great Depression was caused by more than just the stock market crash. The effects were detrimental beyond the financial crisis experienced during this time period. The first and most obvious known factor in the development of The Great Depression is the stock market crash of 1929. The Money Alert website†¦show more content†¦The banking industry as a whole after the stock market crashed was going bankrupt due to not being able to carry the â€Å"bad debt† that was created from using customer money to buy stock. Because the banks were out of money, they were unable to cover customer withdrawals from their bank, causing many bank customers to lose all of their savings. With the uncertainty of the future of the banking industry, many people withdrew all of their savings, which caused more than 9,000 banks to close their doors and go out of business (Kelly). Due to the effects of the Great Depression, and the collapse of the banking industry, the government created regulations to prevent similar failure in the future. For Example, the SEC, (or Securities Exchange Commission), which regulates the sell and trade of stocks, bonds and other investments was created as a result of The Great Depression. The FDIC (or Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation), was created to insure bank accounts so that that the consumer would be protected if the bank were to go out of business (Kelly). The Great Depressions effect on the banking industry led to many useful changes to the banking industry and helped restore confidence in banks in the American people. The next major factor that contributed to the Great Depression was the reduction of goods being purchased during the time period. After the stock market crashed, consumers fromShow MoreRelatedCause and Effects of the Great Depression4210 Words   |  17 PagesThe Causes and Effects of The Great Depression In America Few Americans in the first months of 1929 saw any reason to question the strength and stability of the nations economy. Most agreed with their new president that the booming prosperity of the years just past would not only continue but increase, and that dramatic social progress would follow in its wake. 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The Chi Square Test Health And Social Care Essay Free Essays

1.a. The statistical trial that would be run to look into whether the difference in attending rates between the different classs of patients was statistically important is the Chi-square trial. We will write a custom essay sample on The Chi Square Test Health And Social Care Essay or any similar topic only for you Order Now Chi-square is appropriate because it assumes the homogeneousness of informations distribution between categorical variables, and where differences in such distributions arise, it tests the significance. Chi-square assumes that variables are independent ( its nothing hypothesis ) , and that informations are indiscriminately collated instead than being assigned from a fixed population as in this instance. The appreciably big sample size is besides a warrant for the truth of Chi-square trial. 1.b. At the clip of directing the invitations, the GPs had expected equal figure of patients to go to for each of the classs, therefore taking to the void hypothesis ( premise of independency ) that there is no important difference in the rate of attending for each of the groups represented in the survey. However, the observations were tested between the 2678 invited patients, who were grouped based on their Sexual activity ( Males and Females ) , Age ( 35-44 old ages, 45-54 old ages, and 55-64 old ages ) , Smoking position ( Smokers and Non-smokers ) , Body weight ( Obesed and Not obesed ) , and Diet Scores ( 1,2,3, and 4 for Best, Good, Bad, Worst scores severally ) . The consequences are shown on the affiliated PASW end product ( Tables 1.1-1.5, and Fig. 1.1-1.5 ) . Table 1.1a shows the crosstabulation end product of the attending in males and females. Harmonizing to the tabular array, males ( 987 ) were less likely to go to than females ( 1218 ) , and were every bit good more likely non to go to ( 262 ) , than the females ( 211 ) . Chi-square trial ( Table 1.1b ) confirm that there is a important ( X2=17.68, df=1, Fisher ‘s P A ; lt ; 0.05 ) . In Table 1.2a, attending tend to change between the age groups in the order of 812, 732, and 661 for those with 35-44, 45-54, and 55-64 old ages groups. However, there is no association ( X2=2.074, df=2, P A ; gt ; 0.05 ) between such variableness in attending to the age differences. Table 1.3a-b shows the response of tobacco users and non-smokers to invitation. More non-smokers ( 1583 ) than expected were in attending, while lesser figure of tobacco users ( 622 ) attended. On the other manus, more tobacco users ( 208 ) were likely non to go to than non-smokers ( 265 ) , giving the standardized residuary value of 5.1 and -3.4 severally. A significantly higher ( X2=45.263, df=1, P A ; lt ; 0.05 ) attending rate was observed for the non-smokers compared the tobacco users. This is consequence is besides supported by really high likeliness and linear-by-linear association as shown in Table 1.3b. Table 1.4a-b is the crosstabulation of the association of attending with organic structure weight. The consequence shows that organic structure weight determined that rate of attending of the patients. Therefore, the obesed patients were less ( X2=10.2, df=1, P A ; lt ; 0.05 ) probably to go to ( 197 ) compared with the ‘not obesed ‘ patients ( 2008 ) . Table 1.5a-b compared the attending rate of patients holding different dietetic tonss. The result revealed a likeliness of attending in the order of 1 ( 632 ) A ; gt ; 3 ( 564 ) A ; gt ; 2 ( 541 ) , and 4 ( 468 ) . This order of attending by patients of different dietetic mark was found to be important ( X2=38.259, df=3, P A ; lt ; 0.05 ) . 1.c. Sexual activity, smoking position, organic structure weight and diet mark affect the rate of attending of patients in response to invitation by GPs in Manchester. Thus, on the footing of sex, more females are likely to react to an invitation than males. Besides, more non-smokers and ‘not obesed ‘ are likely to go to than tobacco users and obesed severally. On the footing of diet tonss, patients with diet mark of 1 were more likely to go to than those of mark 3, who were every bit good more likely to go to than those on 2. the latter group are more likely to go to than those on 4. A critical expression of the result of this survey could uncover some implicit in grounds for the important consequences. It could be that males, tobacco users, and obesed were afraid of returning to the infirmary as they think a wellness cheque could uncover some upseting medical conditions or that they were non satisfied with the quality of wellness attention services they had received. For those who attended, it might be that they are funny about cognizing to what extent their conditions would hold improved. The ascertained differences in the rates of attending between the age groups were statistically non important. This is to state that the GPs expected the figure of patients who attended for each age group to go to, while besides being cognizant that the figure of patients who did non go to, would besides non hold attended. Therefore, whether or non patients responded to the invitation is independent ( non influenced ) by their age groups. In drumhead, these findings could pave manner for farther probes into unknoting some of the grounds why those who attended did so and frailty versa. 1.d. My reading of the informations will be that the void hypothesis ( premise of independency ) merely holds true if the age groups of the patients is to be considered when ask foring them, otherwise, the rate of attending or response to invitation is mostly associated with the sex, smoking position, organic structure weight, and diet mark of the patients. 1.e. The consequence of this survey will assist the GPs in Manchester in planning ; given them an penetration on which of the classs of the patient ‘s population that should have more attending during subsequent invitations. For case, since the patient ‘s response to invitation is independent on the age groups, the GPs may make up one’s mind non to see that class in subsequent invitation since there is non likely to do any difference. On the other manus, if an invitation is to be sent based on their sex, organic structure weight, smoke, and diet mark differences, the GPs would hold to take excess steps, including reexamining their services and stepping up enlightenment, if they are to guarantee that every bit many as are invited would go to. ANSWER TO QUESTION 2 One-way analysis of discrepancy ( ANOVA ) will be most suited for finding whether increased nanotube concentration causes increased tensile strength, This is because, ANOVA tests for the grade of variableness between the mean of quantitative informations ( herein represented by the Tensile strength ) that were independently and indiscriminately sampled from group variables ( samples treated with 5 % , 10 % , 15 % , and 20 % nanotube concentrations ) . The premise is that there is homogeneousness of discrepancies and that increasing nanotube concentration does non ( void hypothesis ) have any consequence on tensile strength. Some steps ( see attached PASW Output Tables 2.1-2 ) have been taken to guarantee that these informations do conform with the premises of ANOVA, hence its suitableness. Normality: appraisal of the symmetricalness ( lopsidedness ) and its bunch around the mean ( kurtosis ) was done foremost by utilizing the values in the descriptive end product. As a regulation of the pollex, divergence from normalcy can be assumed if the lopsidedness is by far larger than its standard mistake. Here both of the lopsidedness ( -0.223 ) and kurtosis ( -0.476 ) , though negative, are good near to zero and rather smaller than their standard mistake of 0.472 and 0.918 severally. Kolmogorov-Smirnov and Shapiro-Wilk trials ( Table 2.3 ) both uphold the premise that the informations are usually distributed, and are supported by the mentality of the histogram, Normal Q-Q secret plans, and box secret plans. The premise of homogeneousness of the discrepancies was every bit good confirmed utilizing the Levene statistics, which accepts the void hypothesis that the discrepancies are equal ( P A ; gt ; 0.05 ) . Looking at the standard divergence and standard mistake for the several group, it could be seen that there is an overall lessening of fluctuation in tensile strength as the nanotube concentration increased. This is besides supported by the mean secret plan ( Fig. 2.4 ) . Finally, to look into farther for this suggested influence ( see Fig. 2.4 ) , the F-test on the ANOVA tabular array is used. The consequence shows that there is a important ( P A ; lt ; 0.05 ) difference between the mean tensile strength of the different samples treated at different nanotube concentrations. This implies that the obtained F-test is higher than the critical value in F-distribution tabular array Because ANOVA can merely place differences in sample mean between groups without foregrounding where precisely the differences lie, it is imperative that the Post-hoc trial ( e.g. Least important difference as in this survey ) be used to observe which of the group means differ. The Post-hoc LSD was discretionarily chosen and it revealed that though the average difference between samples treated with 10 % and 15 % nanotube concentrations were non important ( P A ; gt ; 005 ) , other group means differed ( P A ; lt ; 0.05 ) between each other and even with 10 % and 15 % samples. Decision: Increasing nanotube concentration gives a important addition in tensile strength. ANSWER TO QUESTION 3 The hypothesis tested here is that the drug Captopril has a important consequence ( may be higher or lower ) on the systolic and diastolic force per unit area in the reasonably hypertensive topics. The corresponding void hypothesis is that Captopril does non hold any consequence on the systolic or diastolic blood force per unit area degree. Therefore, the void hypothesis suggests that the average difference of the ‘before ‘ and ‘after ‘ intervention systolic and diastolic blood force per unit area will be severally zero. The ideal statistical method here is paired T-test. Paired T-test enables the comparing of differences ( if any ) in population agencies of observations made for each instance both before and after they are being subjected to a trial. The trial aims to understate, and if possible eliminate external mistakes or interventions that could take to false positive ( type I error ) or false negative ( type II mistake ) consequences. Premises Independence: This survey involves two wholly separate groups ( systolic and diastolic blood force per unit area group ) . It is worthy to foreground that both groups are non in any manner related to each other, therefore alterations in any one of them is non expected to act upon the other. Besides, the premise of independency is supported by the fact that there is no interaction between the before and after agencies as the latter is merely expected to be due to the consequence of the drug. Normal distribution: Premise of normal distribution and equal discrepancy is confirmed in the descriptive statistics, every bit good as the box secret plans. All instances of ‘before ‘ and ‘after ‘ intervention for the two classs, have really little lopsidedness and kurtosis, with the latter falling a spot outside -1 for the ‘before ‘ systolic diastolic ( see Table 3.1 ) . However, the Normal Q-Q secret plans for each of the instance shows some normal distribution, which is besides supported by the box secret plans. The two outliers on the opposite sides of the ‘after -treatment ‘ diastolic blood force per unit area has been ignored, giving that the lopsidedness ( 0.191 ) and kurtosis ( -0.341 ) are within acceptable scopes ( See Table 3.2 ) , and that Kolmogorov-Smirnov and Shapiro-Wilk are both continuing that the instances in the before and after groups are usually distributed. It is worthy to advert that attending is non given to pr ove for homogeneousness of discrepancy as Paired t-test is non really rigorous on equality and non-equality of discrepancies. Testing for the consequence of Capoten on blood force per unit areas The result of trial is attached as PASW end product ( Tables 3.4-3.6 ) . Table 3.4 displays the mean, standard divergence, and standard mistake for each of the classs. Ocular analysis shows that intervention with Capoten caused a bead in systolic blood force per unit area to 158.20+20 mmHg from 176.93+20.57 mmHg, while diastolic blood force per unit area besides reduced to 103.07+12.55 mmHg from 112.33+10.47 mmHg. However, it remains unknown, if this bead is statistically meaningful or non. The mated sample trial ( Table 3.5 ) shows that non merely did the systolic and diastolic force per unit areas bead by 18.93 mmHg, and 9.26 mmHg severally, the autumn was really important ( P A ; lt ; 0.05 ) . It besides shows that merely a standard divergence of up to 9.02 mmHg and 8.61 mmHg, every bit good as the assurance intervals of 13.93-23.93 mmHg and 4.5-14.04 mmHg for the average difference in systolic and diastolic severally. It is merely within this limits that subsequent trial consequences to be assumed to be accurate. Finally, a correlativity ( see Table 3.6 ) of the mated agencies revealed an about absolutely consistent and unvarying autumn in both systolic ( r=0.901, P A ; lt ; 0.05 ) and diastolic ( r=0.734, P A ; lt ; 0.05 ) blood force per unit area, after the topics were treated with Capoten. Decision: The consequence of this survey solidly rejects the void hypothesis ( statement of no consequence ) , and accepts the alternate hypothesis which states that Capoten affects blood force per unit area. In these braces, the consequence is a important decrease in systolic and diastolic blood force per unit area after disposal of Capoten. ANSWER TO QUESTION 4 Having noted the qualitative variable ( sexual activity ) that should move as an account for response variable ( longevity/lifespan ) , a one-way ANOVA was used to research the extent of association between the two variables. Sexual activity was used to group the males ( n=125 ) into 25 per group of those life: entirely 1 receptive female ( RF ) 8 receptive females 1 non-receptive female ( NRF ) 8 non-receptive females. a, vitamin D, and vitamin E are controls. Normality of length of service distribution was assumed, given the visual aspect of the histogram, and supported by the lopsidedness and kurtosis as shown in Table 4a. II. Levene trial for homogeneousness of discrepancies confirmed the premise of equal discrepancy. The consequence from ANOVA shows that there is important difference ( p A ; lt ; 0.05 ) in the average length of service of the males as grouped. The mean secret plan shows a diminution in the lifetime of males who live with either 1 or 8 receptive females. Therefore, a multiple comparing was made to happen out whether the ascertained diminution was important. The result revealed that the lifetime of the controls ( 63.56, 64.80, and 63.36 yearss for males populating entirely, with 1 NRF, and 8 NRF severally ) , were significantly higher ( p A ; lt ; 0.05 ) than that of those populating with either 1 ( 56.76 yearss ) or 8 ( 38.72 yearss ) receptive females. There was besides an ascertained difference ( p A ; lt ; 0.05 ) between the length of service of males populating with 1 receptor and those populating with 8 receptors. The findings in this survey suggest that the sexual activities of male fruitflies has impact on their length of service, such that the more receptive females they live with, the lesser their lifetime. 4b. To hold a broader position of whether sleep and/or organic structure size have impacts on lifetime, multiple linear ( enter ) arrested development was used. Normality of the distribution was confirmed utilizing histogram and Normal P-P secret plans of Regression Standardized residuary, while the spread secret plan showed that the distribution is random. Furthermore, matrix spread diagram appears to propose a additive association, particularly with length of thorax ) implying that a additive relationship exist between any of the variables and length of service. The theoretical account has a singular correlativity ( R=0.638 ) with a little criterion mistake of estimation ( 13.641 ) , and the F ( 41.787 ) for the arrested development is important ( p A ; lt ; 0.05 ) , therefore corroborating that the theoretical account is tolerably additive. The coefficient of correlativity shows that there is important correlativity ( r=0.636, P A ; lt ; 0.01 between the lifetime and length of t horax, while no important correlativity exist between lifetimes and yearss spent kiping. In decision, lessening in length of service is associated with addition in the figure of receptive female life with a male fruitfly. On the other manus, length of service of male fruitflies increases with an addition in their thorax length, but is non affected by the figure of yearss they spend kiping. How to cite The Chi Square Test Health And Social Care Essay, Essay examples

The Modern World free essay sample

This paper looks at different ways that people become molded into and eventually accepted into society. This paper compares and contrasts the themes of acceptance and inclusion in society that are found in Michel Foucaults book, Power/Knowledge and Richard Rodriguezs, Hunger of Memory. Richard Rodriguez is a Spanish-speaking immigrant who broke the bonds of poverty and became an accepted member of wealthy upper-class and Michel Foucault is a a homosexual who broke the stereotypes to become successfully accepted into society. These two writers put forward the theories that there is an actual process involved in becoming part of society that is separate and distinct from what you receive in your individual family units. Indeed, his most famous book, Hunger of Memory, is precisely about the way in which an individual can reclaim himself (or herself). This autobiographical book is structured in many ways as a travelogue, as the story of the journey that Rodriguez takes from his first schoolroom in Sacramento, which he enters speaking only a few words of English, to the reading room of the British Museum, an icon not only of the powers of the white establishment but also of a certain kind of intellectual power, a place where people whose ideas matter work. We will write a custom essay sample on The Modern World or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page

Organizational Culture and Incentives at Lincoln Electric free essay sample

1. Introduction: An overview of the case study Lincoln Electric is a leading manufacturer of welding products, welding equipment, and electric motors, with more than US$1 billion in sales and 6,000 workers worldwide. Although now publicly traded, members of the Lincoln family still own more than 60 percent of the stock. Lincoln Electric’s tradition of innovative solutions, technological leadership and commitment to customers, employees, and shareholders stems from the vision of its founder, John C. Lincoln and his brother, James F. Lincoln. Lincoln Electric has a very successful management system that other businesses benchmark their own systems by it. For years, other companies have tried to figure out how management coaxes maximum productivity and quality from its workers, even during difficult financial times. The Lincoln system succeeds largely because of an organizational culture based on openness and trust, shared control, and an egalitarian spirit. Although the line between managers and workers is firmly drawn, managers respect the expertise of production workers and value their contributions to many aspects of the business. We will write a custom essay sample on Organizational Culture and Incentives at Lincoln Electric or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page The company has an open-door policy for all top executives, middle managers, and production workers, and regular face-to-face communication is encouraged. Lincolns system worked so well in the US that management decided to extend it overseas. Lincoln built or purchased 11 plants in Japan, South America, and Europe with plans to run the plants from the US using Lincolns expertise with management control systems. Managers saw the opportunity to beat local competition by applying manufacturing control incentive systems to reduce costs and raise production. The results were abysmal and nearly sunk the company. Production and financial goals were not met. The huge losses in the international plants meant that the company would have to borrow money to pay US workers bonuses, or forego bonuses, for the first time, in Lincoln history. Management wondered whether the Lincoln Management System could be transferred to other countries. 2. S. W. O. T Analysis Strength Organizational Culture Everybody in company treated Equally whereby there is no special car parking area for managers and top management executives ,everybody will use the same cafeteria for breakfast or lunch and lastly they practicing open-door policy in the organization Any GAINS in Productivity will be shared with Consumers low Price Employee Higher Pay Shareholders- High Dividend Incentive Scheme Pay according to number pieces produced and enable the workers to gain more wages than the other welding company workers throughout the United states. In addition, these incentives system indirectly heightened the sense of ownership among the plant workers and it’s encouraging them to produce more quality product within the timeframe. Lincoln main strength is Lowest cost structure and High level of productivity strategy Weakness Long working Hours According to the labor law in US or any other countries ,the acceptable working hours for manufacturing company workers is (35 hours per week ) whereas Lincoln electric practicing (43-58 hours per week ). No Base salary when there is no base salary, most of the workers will feel uncomfortable to work in that kind of organization. For instance, if the worker couldn’t work for 43 to 58 hours per week, he or she might low wage than others and how that person would manage the cost of living in United States with that low wage. Opportunity It was told by foreign distributor that American equipment will not sell good in Europe So instead company decides to set up the Wholly owned subsidiaries and acquisition to make the Equipment locally to capture the international market. E. g. Lincoln acquired 7 manufacturer in Europe and Mexico It takes 2 years to implement or change the entire company workers to follow and adopt the Lincoln organization culture and incentives system in Mexico. Threats Political In many Europe and Asian countries the government considered piecework as Exploitative compensation system which force employers to work harder, therefore in Germany the strategy doesn’t work well. Society As stated in weakness part, the long working hours became threat when Lincoln implement the strategy in Other countries because it is not acceptable since labor law limit the working hours 35 hours per week Technical Managers have no experience of work outside US and the local managers also felt reluctant to implement the culture of Lincoln in the Unit. Legal Due to many lawsuit against the organizational culture and incentive systems of Lincoln ‘s foreign acquired companies 3. Case Discussion Questions 1. What is the source of Lincoln’s long-standing competitive advantage in the United States market for arc welding equipment? Lincoln’s Electric long-standing competitive advantage in the United State market achieved by a high productivity rate per worker and this company success had been on extremely high level of employee productivity. Lincoln’s Electric apply incentive scheme based on piecework. The workers receive no based salary but depend on the number of pieces they produce. The piecework rates at the company enable an employee working at a normal pace to earn an income equivalent to the average rage for manufacturing worker in the area where the factory is based. A company faces a quality aspect when it comes to incentive scheme based on piecework. But at Lincoln Electric’s the worker must repair or paid back any piecework that have defect. It means the workers must be responsible for their outputs. The work culture in Lincoln Electric’s is one of the attributor. The company had a strong respect for the ability of the individual. Moreover, in this company, they practicing open-door policy whereby the communication barriers between ‘workers’ and ‘managers’ were eliminated. All workers are treated equally despite of their position. Since 1934, production workers have been awarded a semiannual bonus based on merit ratings. These rating are based on; Objective criteria; example: employee’s level and quality of output. Subjective criteria; example: employee’s attitude toward cooperation and his or her dependability. This semiannual bonus motivates workers to perform better and work harder, resulting boost in productivity. Despite high employee compensation, the worker so productive than Lincoln has a lower cost than its competitors. 2. Why did Lincoln enter foreign markets through acquisitions and Greenfield ventures, rather than through exporting? The Lincoln Electric’s did consider expanding into international market by exporting, but was told by foreign distributor that American equipment would not sell well in Europe. So instead the company decides to set up wholly owned subsidiaries and acquisitions to make the equipment locally. Through acquisition, it was a quick way to execute. The company can rapidly build its presence in this targeted foreign market. Lincoln acquired seven arc welding manufacturers in Europe and one in Mexico. This move is the quickest way to make the equipment locally and introduce their product to the local market. Acquisition may be less risky because acquisition provides a set of assets that are producing a known revenue and profit stream. It also acquires valuable information such as manager’s knowledge about the local market environment. Greenfield ventures gives the company a much greater ability to built the kind of subsidiary company that it wants. The backbone of Lincoln Electric’s success lies in its strong organization culture and a unique set of incentives. Thus, by applying Greenfield ventures can be much easier for Lincoln to build that organization. It is to change the culture of an acquired unit 3. Why did Lincoln’s foreign ventures fail to deliver the gains forecast? The Lincoln may have overlooked the organizations cultural differences when the company decided to acquire the seven arc welding manufacturers in Europe and one in Mexico. When the company acquires these arc welding manufacturers, Lincoln left local managers in place, believing that they knew local conditions better. But there have been told to imply Lincoln’s strong organizational culture and introduce its incentive system in acquired companies. Local managers had little working knowledge about Lincoln’s organizational culture and were unable or unwilling to impose that culture on their unit, which had their own long-established organizational culture. The incentive system or work pieces were a problem to imply to it’s newly acquiring companies. The piecework was viewed as an exploitive compensation system that forces employees to work harder in other countries. The strong organizational culture and the incentive system were the main reason why Lincoln Electric’s stand up upon other competitors. If these two elements cannot be imply or used in their newly acquire companies, this must be the reason why Lincoln’s foreign ventures fail to deliver the gain forecasted. 4. In retrospect, what might Lincoln have done differently to avoid the financial crisis it found itself in? Before investing to a foreign country, Lincoln must first in vestige the foreign countries law relating to worker and working conditions. Also the company must know the foreign culture; it might be organizational culture or life culture itself. Then decide what entry made is the most suitable for the company. When it comes to Lincoln Electrical, where strong organizational culture and incentive system were the backbone of it success, the most possible entry mode is through Greenfield. Greenfield ventures give a much greater ability to build the kind of subsidiary company that it wants. Lincoln can introduce it organizational culture and incentive systems without a clash with another culture or system. While this strategy takes more time to execute, it yields greater long-run returns than the acquisition strategy. 5. What lessons can be gleaned from the Mexican venture? International managers should understand better about the foreign culture that the company wants to invest in. Before foreign instruments are made, the company must understand fully about its culture and laws. The local managers should be train or paid a visit to the successful factories in the America. They should be taught about the culture and the incentive system. Then the managers can imply these to the factories in their own country. The culture can change slowly if truly it is a good culture. Worker can accept it if it more beneficial to them. The incentives systems are proven to make the worker more productive and make the worker earn more. 4. Recommendation There are three ways to solve the company’s current on whether to expand Lincoln business into international market or not such as Human Resources Management, Culture and Policy and Communication . Based on the case study, through Human resources management, could bring an end to this issue whereby recruit foreign talents into US headquarters to adopt the culture and once they feel confident, they will be transfer to their home country to oversee the Lincoln’s acquired companies. Moreover, HRM should recruit more degree holder so that could balance between experienced based managers and knowledge based managers in the organization in order to avoid the agency problem. Apart from that, training is also plays vital role to overcome the lack of international business knowledge of fresh graduates who hired as managers. Nevertheless, Lincoln’s management should create new department called ‘culture and policy ‘ in headquarters and also in acquired companies around Europe and Asia countries. This department main objective should be on understanding the culture, behavior, law, politics intervention, economy, labor law policies and also the market research about a country where Lincoln prefer or desire to expand the business. Last but not least, communication also an important factor for international business whereby create new channel among the branches and offices in order to update the current situation in the acquired companies, if they found anything goes wrong ,the US headquarters would take immediate action it. Higher the foreign talents and local talents hired, more will be the solution, ideas, suggestion and strategies will be introduce, therefore, it will be easier for Lincoln to expand the business into international market and will sustain for longer term.

The Effect of Divided Government on the Rally-Round-the-Flag Phenomenon Essay Example

The Effect of Divided Government on the Rally The Effect of Divided Government on the Rally-Round-the-Flag Phenomenon Paper The Effect of Divided Government on the Rally-Round-the-Flag Phenomenon Paper Nicole Dambra PSC412 Professor Johnson April 29, 2010 Abstract: The concept that public approval of the President increases during times of international crisis is known as the Rally around the Flag phenomenon. Divided government lessens the Presidents accountability, by allowing the president to pass blame to the majority party in the legislative branch. The President attains higher levels of approval from rallies during divided government due to three factors. First, there are higher levels of opposition party criticisms prior to a crisis. Secondly, media outlets disproportionably cover opposition party elites statements supporting he President. Lastly, opposition party statements in support of the President are a very powerful influence on the public. Public approval is important because it increases the power of the President in many aspects of the political arena. Presidential public approval plays a role in members of the presidents party being elected into opening congressional seats (Marra and Ostrom 1989). Presidential popularity has also been linked to the successful policy initiation from the president (Rivers and Rose 1985), and less reversed presidential vetoes (Rohde and Simon 1985). Popular presidents have more persuasive power mongst members of Congress, and are more likely to present bold and ambitious legislative packages to Congress (Baker and Oneal). Popular Presidents have more options and freedom to enact their political agendas with less resistance from Congress (Baker and Oneal). Since public approval is so valuable to the President, the rally-around-the-flag phenomenon is worthy of further research. The notion that a president can elicit a surge of patriotism and public approval for his administration and its policies during an international crisis is known as the rally around the flag effect (Mueller 1970). This phenomenon was supported by empirical research (Kernell 1978; Mueller 1970). More recent studies have cast doubt on some aspects of the rally effect (Brody 1991). The political aspects that explain the origin of the rally-around-the-flag phenomenon lead me to question if periods of divided government effect the size of a rally. Previous Literature There are three prevailing schools of thought that explain Presidential Approval Ratings. The first is that Presidential Approval will inevitably decrease throughout the term. Presidential approval is not a constant decrease, so this theory does not ompletely explain approval trends. The second school of thought claims that presidents are constantly evaluated on their abilities to fulfill the expectations of the electorate. Public approval fluctuates in response to inflation and rates of unemployment, battle deaths during periods of war, levels of international tension, and the success of the presidents legislative agenda. This theory expects the electorate to be sophisticated and informed, which is not the case. The third is the President will do anything to prevent the decay of public approval. This theory is here the rally around the flag phenomenon plays an important role. There are two approaches to explaining the cause of a rally, patriotism and opinion leadership. The Patriotism Model claims that in times of foreign crisis, the public will unconditionally support the president. The fact is that there are many examples of public reaction such as individual rally events, threats, demonstrations, or use of force which do not routinely result in a boost of the presidents popularity. If the cause of a rally is intensified sense of patriotism, events that most gravely threaten he nations political, economic and strategic interests will be the most likely to induce a rally. However, higher levels of hostility have only limited effects on the size of the rally in presidential popularity (Baker and Oneal). When the United States is engaged in a militarized disputes for a prolonged period of time, the presidential approval decreases. This could be evidence of public fear of a successful exit or that the US is overstretching itself. This decrease in public approval does indicate that support is not blind, and the fact that militarized disputes with cold war rivals did not roduce significant rallies sheds further doubt on the patriotism hypothesis (Baker and Oneal). The Opinion Leadership Model states that the political environment in which international crises develop often prohibits the public from access to traditional sources of information which are available during normal periods. This inability to access pertinent information is generally the cause of the rally; it creates a barrier in making political Judgment by leaving out a piece of the puzzle per say. The opinion leadership model of the rally effect (Brody 1991) seems to more accurately account for the rally phenomenon. The factors that seem to effect the size of the rally pertain to how efficiently the dispute is publicized, not the type of the event. The White House increases the size of a rally through eloquent presidential statements, acquiring bipartisan support, and media coverage. The public does not rally in response to a crisis in and of itself, but rather to how the president manages and portrays the events. This suggests that public relations skills of an American president are an progressively more essential instrument for the successful management of public opinion of international conflicts which involve the United States. The political nature of the factors that cause a rally lead me to hypothesize that rallies will be larger in periods of divided government. Divided government occurs when the President and the majority party in Congress have different partisanships. Divided government makes bipartisan cooperation more likely by giving moderates the advantage of greater influence. Divided government creates a credibility dilemma, because the electorate does not know whom to blame or accredit for governmental actions (Mellow and Trubowitz). Presidents are easy targets or capegoats; a divided government makes them less likely to be held accountable for the governments failures because the public has a conceivable alternative for assigning liability to Congress. The majority party in congress has the same incentives as the President to pass the blame. During a divided government there are high levels of opposition party criticism towards the president prior to a crisis (Nicholson). After a major emergency the partisan relationship goes through three stages. The first stage is genuine solidarity; during this stage the legislative branch votes a lot of power to the xecutive. The second stage is ersatz solidarity, when the parties continue the fapde of solidarity (Vermeule). Resulting in open conflict, the initial cooperation and support for the executive causes the public to rally for the president. The reason for this initial support is opposition leaders may avoid criticizing the president because the administration has a virtual monopoly of information about the foreign events and they do not want to appear ill informed or unpatriotic. The Party elites also have a better chance of getting media coverage if they make a statement to support the President. This creates an incentive to agree with the president in order to get publicity, and be able to give opinions on other topics (Howell). Media outlets disproportionably cover opposition party identifiers statements in support of the president because they are less common opinions (Baum, 2002). Non- party presidential praise is extremely persuasive and influential to the public, especially non-party identifiers (Baum and Groeling). The media is a gatekeeper for the information the public receives. When the media covers statements supporting the president the public is influenced. Unlike the President who is always able to get media coverage and publicity about the issues that are interesting to him, members of congress and other party elites have to act strategically to get media coverage. The lack of political opposition and criticism of the presidents policies combined with the media lacking the resources to present opposing interpretations of the crisis creates an environment where the public is largely cut off from the cues it traditionally employs to develop an opinion and form Judgments on political phenomena. Without easily accessible cues presented through the media from those ith whom they identify politically or ideologically, the public is led to assume that there is a consensus among political leaders on the issue and to support the president, even if they would otherwise be inclined to oppose him. Since most Americans know little about foreign affairs they rely on heuristic cues from credible sources. One credible source many Americans rely on is the co- partisan party elites. Support from opposition party members is very influential because the American public trusts their party elites (Baker). Times of divided government are estimated to increase the immediate rally for the president 4. percent (Colaresi). The public also has more trust during divided government because they believe the branches will check each other. Divided government acts to increase the potential political cost of a foreign policy action and thus increases the persuasiveness ofa leaders signal. The public can be more confident that a legislature under opposition control will use its subpoena and oversight power to uncover abuses of power. While it may not be in the presidents partys interest to attack a foreign policy action that was undertaken for private rather than public gain, an opposition party will have no such qualms (Schultz). During divided government the legislature is more likely to hold hearings and investigate presidential decisions under divided government. Between 1954 and 1989 the average number of hearings on defense and international affairs was 25 percent higher under divided government (Martin). The public feels like they are being informed which increases their support. Methods and Data I have combined the rally events used in the articles, Rallying Around the Flag: Foreign Policy events and presidential popularity, Pretty Prudent? Public Responses to U. S. Uses of Force, 1950-1988, and the major uses of force according to American Military History (www. historyguy. com/american_military_history. html) ending with the 2003 invasion of Iraq. I gathered 68 rally events which are composed of 28 wars and military crisis events, 9 peace and reconciliation, 11 summit conferences, 6 policy initiatives, 11 International Setbacks, and four personal events. Then I used News, Norms, Indexing and a Unified Government (http://arts. bev. net/ roper David/politics/congress. htm) to determine if the even occurred during divided or unified government. Lastly, I used public approval ratings from the Gerhard Peters: The American Presidency Project (www. residency. ucsb. edu/data/ popularity. php) to measure the change in presidential approval after the rally event. The data was statistically analyzed. Data Analysis Table 1: Change in Approval Variable Obs. Mean std. Dev. Min Max All Rally Events 4. 91176 6. 986677 -8 Divided Government 5. 026316 7. 937209 Unified Government 4. 266667 5. 662541 14 Table 2: Statistical Significance 1 . oooo Divided Discussion Change †l divided Change in Approval 0. 0544 1. 0000 0. 6596 I found that in general a president can expect to increase public approval ratings by 4. 5 percent following a rally event. This is consistent with previous literature. I did not find evidence to support my hypothesis. There i s little, or no effect that divided government has on the rally phenomenon. The average change in table one for divided government makes it appear that divided government increases that rally by . 75 percent, but the fgures show that these numbers are not actually different, and they are also not statistically significant. When the data was plotted in a box plot it exemplified that there is a slightly greater rally effect during unified government (Figures 1 and 2). These findings were inconsistent with a lot of the previous iterature. This could be due to the fact that I did not only consider military engagements, or other biases formed in the case selection process. One of the reasons attention was focused towards divided governments effect on the rally-around- the-flag phenomenon is because the two largest rallies occurred during divided government. The first was the Gulf War in 1991 under Bush Seniors Administration. Bush experienced an increase of 28 percent. Then the largest rally occurred following September 1 1, 2001, under George W. Bushs administration, he experienced a 34 percent increase in public approval. The rally that followed September 1 lth was fueled by patriotism. Many Americans actually gathered and prayed around the American Flag. This surge in public approval enabled Bush to enact his political agenda, and have ample public support of invading Iraq and waging the War on Terror. Both Bush administrations were immensely aided by the rally. An example ofa military dispute that did not result in a rally was in 1971, under the Nixon Administration, the expansion of military involvement in Laos. This event caused a decrease of seven percent public approval. Another reason that the effect of divided government is hindered is if the egislative branch is divided the accountably dilemma is attributed to partisan affiliation rather than congress blaming the executive. Also divided government inhabits higher levels of presidential public approval (Nicholson et. al. ), and rallies are larger when public approval is low, because the president has more room to improve(Baum 2002). One of the Presidents most influential powers is persuasion. The President has to take advantage of any political tools that will enable him to implement his agenda. The ability to create or inflate the size of a rally can be extremely advantageous to the President.

Communication in Management Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Communication in Management - Case Study Example In my opinion there are three vital non-verbal categories which if applied properly will fully complete all the functions of the non-verbal communication and will not hinder the verbal one - eye contact, paralanguage and adornment. Modern business culture values eye contact, because it maintains the balance of the interpersonal relation between the seniors and the workers. Looking away might be read as avoiding the importance of the message conveyed. Thus, keeping eye contact with the employees when talking is of crucial importance. Scheflen (1972) explains that paralanguage involves non-lexical vocal communication. Paralanguage uses the broadest emotional nuances, consequently, if applied properly can replace excessive gestures or facial expressions. This category includes inflection, tone, pitch (high, low), pauses (hesitant, organized, meaningful), pacing (rapid, measured, slow) (Scheflen 1972). Paralanguage is a powerful tool, because it plays with associations and on unconscious level. Knapp and Hall (2002) note that adornment - clothes, make-up, accessories are also important communication tools, which besides appearance transmit emotional and psychological signs. Managers need to be extra careful when choosing adornments, because they play a powerfully suggestive action. Moreover, the room where the meetings are held has the capacity to affect the interaction. The amount of light, the color of the walls, the seat arrangement, the temperature and smells have to the correctly applied by the manager who is trying to make his point and his ideas to be understood and followed. 2. Discuss in detail the relationship between emotional intelligence and effective listening. The most common mistake made in management is not listening. Active listening is the other term used to identify undivided attention and empathic attitude. Rock (2007) outlines four basic rules that active listening involves: Seek to understand before you seek to be understood; Be non judgmental; Give your undivided attention to the speaker; Use silence effectively. All these require a high emotional intelligence, because they operate on mental, emotional and subconscious levels. When we try to understand rather than to be understood, this strains our listening abilities. Furthermore, through collecting the information while listening takes place, we process the details first we our intelligence and then exchange it emotionally to see what we have understood. Empathic listening proves that emotional intelligence is necessary to accomplish this. An example of being non judgmental is when we are acquainting with a new person. We avoid addressing arguable issues, until we learn the disposition or judgment criteria of the individual about the problem. This empathic behavior is excellent indicator for the emotional intelligence involved is active listening and communication techniques. The undivided attention is also dependent on the emotional intelligence, because the listener intentionally directs his senses towards the speaker. The listener can al so consciously send messages to the speaker to demonstrate that he is actively listening through body language, applauses or asking questions. The final concept for

Case Study of Target Company Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Of Target Company - Case Study Example In the evaluation of the cash dimensions, attempt is made to identify and determine whether the reported earnings are supported by the cash flow. For instance, cash flow would holdup incomes for a firm that has provided its clients with prolonged payment agreements or that has accrued inventory in expectation of augmented future sales. Such lagging cash flow would blight earnings quality on the cash dimension. The balance sheet plays a very vital document in assessing the quality of earnings of a firm. The term position quality is commonly referred to the balance sheet when used to calculate the quality of earnings. The position quality is impaired if the assets of the firm are carried at amounts that surpass the fair value or when obligations are carried at amount less than that required to liquidate them (Lewis & Indiana University, Bloomington, 2007). Quality of earnings analysis is, therefore, an essential characteristic of the assessment process is obtaining a clear comprehension of the targets quality of earnings. An evaluation of the quality and sustainability of incomes should be carried out early. Evaluations enable an earlier encouragement or a dissuasion conclusion and certify that baseline assessment methods are rational and impregnable in the determination of pricing and other deal terms. Comprehending the sustainability of earnings and how that influences on business deal value and forecast modeling is vital to sail across the exceptional features of any deal. The intension of this summary information on discrete companies hence is to enable more emphasis and consideration on one or more dimensions of quality of earnings. For instance, might pinpoint non-recurring additions that thought to have reduced the companys incomes on the persistence approach. Alternatively, lessening cash flow may be the objective, impairing q uality of earnings on the cash aspect. Finally, for some firms might look at the balance

Infinity Computer Systems Distributed Database

Infinity Computer Systems Distributed Database CHAPTER 1 Company Profile Company Profile: Infinity computer systems is a Sri Lanka based company engaged in selling computers, computer components and software applications to the local buyers. The company had pledged to provide the local market with the latest in products in IT for an affordable price as they appear in the world market, gaining an edge over its competitors. This well known secret has been the formula of success of the company to achieve rapid growth in a short time span. Company has wide range of computer hardware and software products on offer to the customers. One key market sector that the company is aiming to spread their reach in future is mobile handheld devices such as smart phones. Having started the business in 1999 with just two employees, today Infinity computer systems has grown into one of the biggest IT and computer components vendors in Sri lanka and in the South Asian subcontinent. Currently the company has 3 branches One in Mumbai, India and one in Kandy; a town in central part of Sri lanka and the head quarters situated in Colombo and employ 102 full time staff in all three branches. Infinity computer systems has a market share of about 30% in Sri lanka. Furthermore company has realize the benefits of the boom in IT sector in India and is aiming to expand the Mumbai branch to serve as a major computer hardware and software vendor in India to increase the revenue. Colombo head office and Mumbai branches maintains two large warehouses for storing directly imported products. Mumbai branch also directly engage with suppliers and manufacturers for buying stocks with minimal supervision form the Colombo head office. Kandy branch depends on Colombo head office for obtaining stocks and when dealing with major decisions. At Infinity computer systems theres a qualified sales and customer service team available to provide customers with expert product selection assistance and support. They try to keep an open dialogue with customers, so feedback and suggestions are always welcomed and highly appreciated. Be it a hard core gamer, student, small or medium sized business or an IT professional, Infinity Computer System has the right solution to cater every IT need. Current System: Due to the popularity of the company, Everyday a large number of business transactions are carried out at infinity computer systems outlets, resulting in heavy usage of databases and database applications. Stock maintenance, Human resource management as well as and sales and marketing departments all rely on database systems in day to day operations in Infinity computer systems all 3 branches. Currently Infinity computer systems utilize a centralized database system with relational database architecture to store data. The central database system is located in Colombo head office branch. Colombo, Mumbai and Kandy branches access the database in real time through the company WAN in day to day operations. The database system consists of following major tables which are related to other sub tables. Employees Stocks Sales Database manages separate tables for each branch that are logically related to above three main tables. The basic structure of the database table architecture is as follows. Both Mumbai branch and Kandy branch share Colombo central database. Disadvantages of Current System Due to the centralized nature of the current system, company faces number of difficulties and uncovered the following disadvantages. The main disadvantage of the current systems is single point of failure. If central database fails all the branches affect by it and all business activities comes to a halt. Furthermore breakdown in WAN line also affect the accessibility to the network. Slow access time is a major concern as well. Because, all three branches access the database simultaneously, current database systems has difficulties in processing queries quickly leading to frustration by many users. This affects negatively the fast phased nature of the infinity computer systems working environment as well as customer serving time. The sluggish nature of the current system is not appropriate in any mean to the upcoming expansions of the India branch that the company management is planning to execute in near future. specially, Mumbai branch will need a database which has quick access and has the ability to sustain a rapid growth in both capacity as well as demand. Areas Where Current System Lacks Security Current WAN network has a huge security hole as none of the site is protected by a firewall. This allows hackers and other malware programs such as worms to penetrate in to the network easily and it pose a great threat to the data at rest as well as those which are travelling on the network. The current system does not use any type of encryption when transferring data between remote sites and the main site. This pose a great threat for data such as Passwords and usernames as user authentication is done at the main site (Colombo) rather than the local sites. Lack of encryption means, anyone who intercept data get the access to user authentication information. Furthermore, the absence of encryption pose a threat to other data that transferred between main and remote sites as results for use queries. Because company database stores data that is vital and confidential to Infinity computer systems. If the data such as sales records and price listings fall in to rival business organizations hands, they can gain advantage over Infinity computer systems. User authentication system of the current database system has less than adequate authentication mechanism which grant access to all areas of the database system with single point of authentication. This pose a threat to data as staff of the company with all levels of position have the easy access to almost all of the company data. Solution To overcome the problems currently faced by Infinity Computer systems, a distributed database system can be implemented. In a distributed database environment, database is distributed over many locations where end users have quick access. Configuration and advantages of the new database system will be described in the next chapter. CHAPTER 2 Distributed Database Distributed database is a collection of multiple, logically interrelated databases distributed over a computer network. In a distributed database environment, users have the ability to access data from different sources that are located at multiple locations. When a database is distributed over many locations, it produces the challenge of retrieving the data from many locations and present it to system user. Furthermore managing the database becomes a critical function as well. This is where distributed database management system (DBMS) comes in to play. DBMS is a software system that manages the Distributed Database and provides the access mechanism to the users of the database. By tightly integrating with various systems and databases in a distributed environment, DBMS make the distribution transparent to the user. Infinity Computer Systems Distributed Database Overview Depending on the current geographical distribution of the branches and the WAN architecture, Infinity Computer Systems database can be distributed in to three branches to maximize the productivity and access times as well as obtaining many other advantages over existing centralized database. Out of many available, There are two major types of database design architectures we can consider when designing our company database system. They are, Multiple Site Processing, Multiple Site Data architecture using either Homogenous or Heterogeneous Distributed Database Management Systems(DDBMS). Out of above two architectures we will implement Homogenous Multiple Site Processing, Multiple Site Data architecture for Infinity Computer Systems distributed database. A distributed Multiple Site Processing, Multiple Site Data Multiple Site Processing, Multiple Site Data (MPMD) scenario refers to type of database that is fully distributed with multiple data processor support which includes transaction processors at multiple sites. When all the sites of the logically related distributed database utilize and integrates the same type of Database Management System(DBMS) at all sites of the distributed network its called Homogenous DBMS. Infinity Computer Systems Distributed Database Architecture Combining the concepts described above new distributed database architecture of the company can be demonstrated as below. As shown in the figure 4 and 5 in the new architecture, Both Mumbai and Kandy branches will maintain a copy of the database that consisting of records related to their respective branches. Colombo branch will maintain two databases. one includes data related to Colombo branch and a main database which will hold records related to all three branches. The new distributed database use relational database architecture. With this new architecture each branch will get the ability to access their very own database which is located locally. With this implementation, processing of the data also will be decentralized to all three branches. Apart from accessing the locally located database, both Kandy and Mumbai branches will be able to access the main database that is located in Colombo head office. The distributed database management system (DDBMS) will consist of Distributed Query Processor(DQP), that handles distributed queries, a Distributed Transaction Manager (DTM) for processing distributed transactions, a Distributed Metadata Manager (DMM) for managing distributed metadata, a Distributed Integrity Manger (DIM) for enforcing integrity among the various components of the distributed database system and a Distributed Security Manager (DSM) for enforcing security constraints across the database. LANs of all three branches were redesigned To facilitate the modifications to the new distributed database architecture, following section describes each LAN site with their new features and configurations. New LAN Architecture of Colombo Site Colombo branch function as the heart of the new distributed database system. As Colombo branch handles all management and financial decisions its important for Colombo branch to have access to data quickly. For this purpose, Colombo LAN is revamped as shown in the following figure to facilitate the functions of new distributed database. Being a company that is engaged in selling state of the art computers, accessories and networking products, its important to have faster access to database as well as fast access to different interconnected nodes within the LAN itself for this purpose Colombo site LAN is completely redesigned to facilitate the new database system. The old token ring based topology was replaced with a new Gigabit Ethernet LAN with Star topology. Gigabit Ethernet provides data rate of up to 1000 Mbp/s for LAN data. The new database server and backup server is implemented as a separated segment in the LAN. The separation is done through the router. The switches that connect Accounting and human resource department, Sales department and Warehouse department connects to a central switch, which in return connects to the router. Database server and Backup server connects to a switch, which in return connects to the router which also has the built-in firewall capability. The router segments the database section of the LAN form the other sections. This way it helps to reduce the congestion in the Local LAN. It helps faster access to database within the Colombo LAN itself as well as faster processing for incoming queries that are coming from other branches through WAN. The addition of the firewall protects the internal LAN form unauthorized access. This helps to protect the data of the company. The backup server provides continuous back up facility to the database. It helps to recover database in an event of a failure of the main database. New LAN Architecture of Mumbai Site Mumbai branch function as the second important branch after Colombo head office. Furthermore with managements intention to expand it in future to facilitate more storage and attain more sales targets that covers a larger customer base, makes it essential to have a good infrastructure in the LAN at Mumbai branch. For this purpose, Mumbai branch LAN also revamped as shown in the following figure to facilitate the functions of new distributed database and future additions. Mumbai branch LAN also revamped with an architecture similar to that of the Colombo LAN. The old network topology of Token Ring based architecture is replaced with a new STAR Topology Gigabit Ethernet. Gigabit Ethernet provide the faster access to data within the LAN, which is much need in day to day communication within the organization. Furthermore it lays the foundation to future expected expansions to the Branch. The router segments the LAN area consisting of distributed database from that of the other areas of the LAN. This helps to prevent congestion and improves the data transfer efficiency of the LAN as well as providing faster a access to data for both local and distributed queries. The router is equipped with a built in firewall which protects the internal LAN from unauthorized access, thus protects the valuable data of Infinity computer systems. Database server is connected to a backup server which backs up the data of the main database server. It helps to recover the main server in an event of a failure. New LAN Architecture of Kandy Site Kandy branch also revamped to facilitate the new changes to the database system. The architecture of the LAN is nearly similar to that of the other two branches. following figure shows the new architecture. The most notable addition to Kandy branch is the addition of the T1 line which replaced the previous ISDN line that connects the branch LAN to the company WAN. The T1 line provides the faster access to distributed data as well as internet. This makes it easier for all branches as it provides same speed of access to all three branches data without creating any bottle necks. The LAN is designed as a Gigabit LAN using a Star topology which provides fast data transmission within the LAN. The router has built-in firewall which protects the internal LAN form intrusions. The database server section of the LAN is segmented using the router. This helps to control the congestion and allows the faster access to data for local and distributed queries. Backup database server provide data backup functionality for main database server which helps in quick recovery of the main database server in an event of a failure. New Features of the Proposed WAN Network architecture and Distributed System There are few new features were introduced to the existing WAN network to make it compatible with Distributed database system and address certain security holes that presented in the existing WAN. Firewalls have been introduced to each local site to protect each LANs of all three branches. This feature address the issue of network being exposed to Worms and hackers threats. Firewalls block malicious traffic that are not authorized to enter any segment of the Infinity computer system network while allowing legitimate traffic to access any part of the network ISDN line that connected Kandy branch to the WAN has been replaced with a high bandwidth T1 line. This allows the distributed queries to access Kandy branch data at the same speed as the of the other two branches; Colombo and Kandy as well as Mumbai branch being benefitted from accessing the other two sites data much faster than the existing ISDN line. Each LAN of all three branches have been introduced with a new LAN segment which consists of distributed database and processing systems and it was segmented through the router to reduce the congestion so that both local and remote data traffic gets the ability to access the database faster. Security Enhancements Provided by New System The new system is designed to provide encryption for user authentication data. This prevents the data interceptors from understanding the data related to user authentication and authorization. The proposed system is designed with a multi level security control system. Multilevel security controls ensure users cleared at different security level access and share the companys distributed database in which data is assigned different security levels. This prevents the lower level staff from gaining access to data that are not relevant to them and it ensure the security of the data. Advantages of the New Database System There are number of advantages of the new distributed database system. The most significant advantage of the new system is, speed. with having locally available database for each branch there is no longer a need to connect to the Colombo head office database during day to day operations giving fast access to data that is located at each branch LAN. Fast access to database means rapid operations in all task in the company environment as well as quick service for customers. Having redundant data in two company branches apart from Colombo head office means higher availability. Even if a failure occur in the main branch database, it has the ability to quickly recover from the regional branches. In the same manner should a failure occur in a regional branch database, it has the ability to recover from main database in Colombo branch with minimal downtime. The distributed architecture of the database reduce the strain on the main database servers as workstations connected each branchs database server shares the processing workload between them. this result in faster processing of queries. There will be a tremendous reduction in network traffic as well. In the old configuration, company WAN was highly utilized for database traffic. specially Colombo branch received a huge amount of database traffic every day. with the new configuration, branch offices are no longer needed to utilize the WAN to access database. This frees up the WAN traffic and allow all branches to utilize it for other more critical tasks. As the database query processing is distributed between branches, there is no longer a need to maintain high cost high-end servers for processing. This reduces company expenditure in long run. New database system provides the ability to expand both in quantity and processing power. This provides the platform to carry out planned expansions for Mumbai branch without having to worry about recourses and infrastructure. Removal of Reliance on a Central Site. In the existing centralized system, both remote branches of the company as well as Colombo branch is depend on same database that is located in Colombo. But the proposed system eliminates this reliance and provide a independent database system for each branch with the ability of also connecting with the databases of the other branches through the Distributed database management system and eliminates single site of failures. With fragments as the unit of distribution in the new architecture, a transaction can be divided in to several sub queries that operates on fragments. This increases the degree of concurrency or parallelism in the system. Possible Problems in the New Architecture Complexity The new distributes database system hides the distributed nature of the system from the user. Though it provides an acceptable level of performance, reliability and availability is more complex than the existing centralized database architecture. The fact that certain data, specially Colombo and Mumbai stocks related data are replicated in Colombo and Mumbai branches, ads an extra level of complexity when dealing with synchronization between these elements. So the software must be designed to handle the data replication adequately, if not it will lead to degradation of availability, reliability and overall performance of the entire system. Cost The increased complexity of the new distributed database architecture leads to higher costs in hardware and software resources as well as maintenance costs. Difficulties in integrity control Validity and consistency of stored data is referred to as Database integrity. Integrity is usually is expressed in terms of constraints, which are consistency rules that DBMS is not allowed to violate. Enforcing integrity constraints requires that defines the constrains but that are not related to actual update operation itself. In a Distributed DBMS environment like the proposed Infinity computer systems architecture, the processing and communication cost that are required to enforce such integrity constraints may be prohibitive. Security Unlike the centralized DBMS system which the access can easily be controlled, new Distributed database system which consists of fragmented and replicated data which are located at multiple sites, the security control is more challenging. Furthermore the network itself needs to be made secure in order to protect the data that travel between three branches. CHAPTER 3 Detailed structure and functionality of distributed database In this chapter, structure of the distributed database of infinity computer systems and the functionality of the distributed components will be discussed in greater detail. Table Format There are three major tables used in the database architecture. They are Employees, sales and stocks. Following is the table format for each table. As shown in the figure 7, Employees, Sales and Stocks tables are fragmented and located at all three branches according to the relevance of the site where the data is accessed most often. This architecture make the data access time faster and keep the communication costs down. Furthermore data of the Stocks_CMB, are vertically fragmented and located at the Mumbai branch database site with the table name of Stocks_CMB_FRG. During the fragmentaion of Stock_CMB all attributes of the Stock_CMB table were allocated in to Stocks_CMB_FRG except UNITPRICE attribute, because it is irrelevant to INDIAN territory thus it reduce the wastage of storage space due to repetition of irrelevant data. The purpose of allocating Colombo head office Stock data in the Mumbai site is to allow faster access because Mumbai branch of Infinity computer systems, run its own warehouse and deal with manufacturers and suppliers directly. This makes it important fir Mumbai branch have the ability to access the Colombo stock data very often and quickly so that both branches can maintain a healthy stock for everyday business. Colombo branch retains a copy of the Stocks tables related to Mumbai site as well as maintaining its own stock table related to Colombo stocks. In this new design, Sto ck_MBI table that is located in the Colombo head office site is configured to synchronize with Stock_MBI table, two times a day, during midday and then at the end of the working day. In a nutshell, following is the way the database is distributed across three branches. Employees and Sales Tables that were previously located in the Colombo branch, were fragmented according to the relevancy where data items are physically belong and located at their relevant branches. Stock_MBI is replicated at Mumbai (Stock_MBI_LCL) site while retaining a exact copy in Colombo branch Stock_KDY table is transferred to Kandy site from its previous position of Colombo Stock_CMB table is Vertically fragmented and located a copy at Mumbai branch. Data Allocation Method There are four methods to consider when choosing a data allocation method for proposed distributed database architecture for Infinity computer systems. They are, Centralized Fragmented Complete Replication Selective Replication Out of the above methods, we use Selective Replication as the data allocation method for proposed distributed database architecture. Selective Replication is a combination of Fragmentation, replication and centralized data allocation methods. In this method some data items are fragmented to maximize high locality of reference and others, which are used at many sites and are not frequently updated, are replicated; otherwise data items are centralized. This approach gives combination of advantages of all the other three methods. Using the selective replication method, we will only be distributing data related to Kandy and Mumbai branch to their respective branches while keeping a main database at Colombo branch which will consist of records related to all branches. This will serve as a redundant database as well as a central repository where all data related to companys all three branches can be easily retrieved. Following section describes how the above distribution was done by using relational algebra. Fragmentation of Database for Allocation of Data at Various Sites When distributing a database across multiple sites, one of the main factors need to consider is the fragmentation of database items such as Tables. Fragmentation consists of breaking a relation in to smaller relations or fragments and storing the fragments at different sites. By fragmenting, data can be distributed to the sites where they used more often. There are two approaches to distribute database elements across multiple sites. They are, Distribute one copy of each database table in all sites Distribute portions of the selected tables that are important to local sites In our company case we will be using the second method mentioned above. In that method we will be distributing only the data in the three main tables that are related to each site (Branch). When fragmenting data in a table there are three techniques used. They are, Horizontal fragmentation Vertical fragmentation Hybrid fragmentation For our company distributed database we use both horizontal and vertical fragmentation to distribute table data among three branches. More precisely, For Employee table and Sales table we use Horizontal fragmentation and for Stocks_CMB table we use Vertical Fragmentation. The reason for using vertical fragmentation for stock table is because Mumbai branch deals with manufacturers and other vendors who provides hardware and software stocks directly to Mumbai branch. Horizontal Fragmentation In horizontal fragmentation, certain rows of the tables are put in to a base relation at one site, and other rows are put in to a base relation at another site. In other words, the rows (tuples) of a relation are distributed to many sites as disjointed fragments. In infinity computer systems database, we use the horizontal fragmentation as follows, to fragment Employees and sales tables. When selecting the criteria to horizontally fragment the Employees and Sales tables is the relevance of data to the location. As shown above, the current employee table, we fragment by considering the BRCODE field. BRCODE indicates the branch where the employee works. By doing so we can build three new tables out of the above database table and allocate them to each of the 3 branches of the company. We can horizontally fragment employees table in to 3 separate logically related tables as follows. Using relational algebra to do the horizontal fragmentation of Employees table To do the above horizontal fragmentation of employees table in to three tables we can use relational algebra SELECT operation. Our intention is to fragment the table in to three small fragments so each table would contain Employees related to their respective branch. To achieve this, Relational algebra operations are, Employees_CMB = SELECT(Employees_Table) WHERE BRCODE = CMB Employees_MBI = SELECT(Employees_Table) WHERE BRCODE = MBI Employees_KDY = SELECT(EMP_TABLE) WHERE BRCODE = KDY Executing the above three formulas results in following three table fragments: Employees_CMB (contains 2 tuples) Employees_MBI (contains 2 tuples) Employees_KDY (contains 1 tuple) Relational algebra operation for fragmenting Sales Table We can divide sales tables in to three fragments through the SELECT algebra operation as follows and it will result in three tables containing sales data related to each of the three branches. Sales_CMB = SELECT(Sales_Table) WHERE BRCODE = CMB Sales_MBI = SELECT(Sales _Table) WHERE BRCODE = MBI Sales_KDY = SELECT(Sales _Table) WHERE BRCODE = KDY Vertical Fragmentation Vertical Fragmentation works by splitting a table between attributes. Vertical fragmentation is used in situations where some sites needed to access the attributes of the tables of many data items in a table. This fragmentation is more difficult than horizontal fragmentation as more options exist. The fragmentation can be achieved by either Grouping attributes to fragments or Splitting relations in to fragments For fragment Colmbo branchs Stock_CMB Table, we use the first method mentioned above. Relational algebra operation for Vertical fragmentation of Sales_CMB Table For vertical fragmentation, relational algebra Project operation is used. We fragment the above table to form a new table called Stocks_CMB_FRG. This new table will contain all the attributes of the above table except UNITPRICE. Following is the relational algebra Project operation. Stocks_CMB_FRG = PROJECT(Stocks_CMB) TOCKCODE, ITEMNO, QTY, S LASTIN, NEXTIN Executing the above operation will result in creating the following table. Stocks_CMB_FRG Data Model The data model consists of three layers called schemas. Each schema defines a set of views that database can be seen. The three schemas are, External schema layer Represents the view of the database that users and/or applications might see Conceptual schema layer At this level the database objects such as tables, columns, views, and indexes are defined. These definitions provide mappings to the next level of the model, which is where the physical layout of the database is defined. Internal schema layer This layer defines the actual layout of the records and fields. Distributed databases of all three branches are modeled according the above structure and all three branches maintain their own set of the above model. In local sites, when users access the data stored locally, they access them as defined in the external Views. Conceptual schema maps the logical structure of the tables to Internal Schema which defines the physical storage of data on the discs. The abov Infinity Computer Systems Distributed Database Infinity Computer Systems Distributed Database CHAPTER 1 Company Profile Company Profile: Infinity computer systems is a Sri Lanka based company engaged in selling computers, computer components and software applications to the local buyers. The company had pledged to provide the local market with the latest in products in IT for an affordable price as they appear in the world market, gaining an edge over its competitors. This well known secret has been the formula of success of the company to achieve rapid growth in a short time span. Company has wide range of computer hardware and software products on offer to the customers. One key market sector that the company is aiming to spread their reach in future is mobile handheld devices such as smart phones. Having started the business in 1999 with just two employees, today Infinity computer systems has grown into one of the biggest IT and computer components vendors in Sri lanka and in the South Asian subcontinent. Currently the company has 3 branches One in Mumbai, India and one in Kandy; a town in central part of Sri lanka and the head quarters situated in Colombo and employ 102 full time staff in all three branches. Infinity computer systems has a market share of about 30% in Sri lanka. Furthermore company has realize the benefits of the boom in IT sector in India and is aiming to expand the Mumbai branch to serve as a major computer hardware and software vendor in India to increase the revenue. Colombo head office and Mumbai branches maintains two large warehouses for storing directly imported products. Mumbai branch also directly engage with suppliers and manufacturers for buying stocks with minimal supervision form the Colombo head office. Kandy branch depends on Colombo head office for obtaining stocks and when dealing with major decisions. At Infinity computer systems theres a qualified sales and customer service team available to provide customers with expert product selection assistance and support. They try to keep an open dialogue with customers, so feedback and suggestions are always welcomed and highly appreciated. Be it a hard core gamer, student, small or medium sized business or an IT professional, Infinity Computer System has the right solution to cater every IT need. Current System: Due to the popularity of the company, Everyday a large number of business transactions are carried out at infinity computer systems outlets, resulting in heavy usage of databases and database applications. Stock maintenance, Human resource management as well as and sales and marketing departments all rely on database systems in day to day operations in Infinity computer systems all 3 branches. Currently Infinity computer systems utilize a centralized database system with relational database architecture to store data. The central database system is located in Colombo head office branch. Colombo, Mumbai and Kandy branches access the database in real time through the company WAN in day to day operations. The database system consists of following major tables which are related to other sub tables. Employees Stocks Sales Database manages separate tables for each branch that are logically related to above three main tables. The basic structure of the database table architecture is as follows. Both Mumbai branch and Kandy branch share Colombo central database. Disadvantages of Current System Due to the centralized nature of the current system, company faces number of difficulties and uncovered the following disadvantages. The main disadvantage of the current systems is single point of failure. If central database fails all the branches affect by it and all business activities comes to a halt. Furthermore breakdown in WAN line also affect the accessibility to the network. Slow access time is a major concern as well. Because, all three branches access the database simultaneously, current database systems has difficulties in processing queries quickly leading to frustration by many users. This affects negatively the fast phased nature of the infinity computer systems working environment as well as customer serving time. The sluggish nature of the current system is not appropriate in any mean to the upcoming expansions of the India branch that the company management is planning to execute in near future. specially, Mumbai branch will need a database which has quick access and has the ability to sustain a rapid growth in both capacity as well as demand. Areas Where Current System Lacks Security Current WAN network has a huge security hole as none of the site is protected by a firewall. This allows hackers and other malware programs such as worms to penetrate in to the network easily and it pose a great threat to the data at rest as well as those which are travelling on the network. The current system does not use any type of encryption when transferring data between remote sites and the main site. This pose a great threat for data such as Passwords and usernames as user authentication is done at the main site (Colombo) rather than the local sites. Lack of encryption means, anyone who intercept data get the access to user authentication information. Furthermore, the absence of encryption pose a threat to other data that transferred between main and remote sites as results for use queries. Because company database stores data that is vital and confidential to Infinity computer systems. If the data such as sales records and price listings fall in to rival business organizations hands, they can gain advantage over Infinity computer systems. User authentication system of the current database system has less than adequate authentication mechanism which grant access to all areas of the database system with single point of authentication. This pose a threat to data as staff of the company with all levels of position have the easy access to almost all of the company data. Solution To overcome the problems currently faced by Infinity Computer systems, a distributed database system can be implemented. In a distributed database environment, database is distributed over many locations where end users have quick access. Configuration and advantages of the new database system will be described in the next chapter. CHAPTER 2 Distributed Database Distributed database is a collection of multiple, logically interrelated databases distributed over a computer network. In a distributed database environment, users have the ability to access data from different sources that are located at multiple locations. When a database is distributed over many locations, it produces the challenge of retrieving the data from many locations and present it to system user. Furthermore managing the database becomes a critical function as well. This is where distributed database management system (DBMS) comes in to play. DBMS is a software system that manages the Distributed Database and provides the access mechanism to the users of the database. By tightly integrating with various systems and databases in a distributed environment, DBMS make the distribution transparent to the user. Infinity Computer Systems Distributed Database Overview Depending on the current geographical distribution of the branches and the WAN architecture, Infinity Computer Systems database can be distributed in to three branches to maximize the productivity and access times as well as obtaining many other advantages over existing centralized database. Out of many available, There are two major types of database design architectures we can consider when designing our company database system. They are, Multiple Site Processing, Multiple Site Data architecture using either Homogenous or Heterogeneous Distributed Database Management Systems(DDBMS). Out of above two architectures we will implement Homogenous Multiple Site Processing, Multiple Site Data architecture for Infinity Computer Systems distributed database. A distributed Multiple Site Processing, Multiple Site Data Multiple Site Processing, Multiple Site Data (MPMD) scenario refers to type of database that is fully distributed with multiple data processor support which includes transaction processors at multiple sites. When all the sites of the logically related distributed database utilize and integrates the same type of Database Management System(DBMS) at all sites of the distributed network its called Homogenous DBMS. Infinity Computer Systems Distributed Database Architecture Combining the concepts described above new distributed database architecture of the company can be demonstrated as below. As shown in the figure 4 and 5 in the new architecture, Both Mumbai and Kandy branches will maintain a copy of the database that consisting of records related to their respective branches. Colombo branch will maintain two databases. one includes data related to Colombo branch and a main database which will hold records related to all three branches. The new distributed database use relational database architecture. With this new architecture each branch will get the ability to access their very own database which is located locally. With this implementation, processing of the data also will be decentralized to all three branches. Apart from accessing the locally located database, both Kandy and Mumbai branches will be able to access the main database that is located in Colombo head office. The distributed database management system (DDBMS) will consist of Distributed Query Processor(DQP), that handles distributed queries, a Distributed Transaction Manager (DTM) for processing distributed transactions, a Distributed Metadata Manager (DMM) for managing distributed metadata, a Distributed Integrity Manger (DIM) for enforcing integrity among the various components of the distributed database system and a Distributed Security Manager (DSM) for enforcing security constraints across the database. LANs of all three branches were redesigned To facilitate the modifications to the new distributed database architecture, following section describes each LAN site with their new features and configurations. New LAN Architecture of Colombo Site Colombo branch function as the heart of the new distributed database system. As Colombo branch handles all management and financial decisions its important for Colombo branch to have access to data quickly. For this purpose, Colombo LAN is revamped as shown in the following figure to facilitate the functions of new distributed database. Being a company that is engaged in selling state of the art computers, accessories and networking products, its important to have faster access to database as well as fast access to different interconnected nodes within the LAN itself for this purpose Colombo site LAN is completely redesigned to facilitate the new database system. The old token ring based topology was replaced with a new Gigabit Ethernet LAN with Star topology. Gigabit Ethernet provides data rate of up to 1000 Mbp/s for LAN data. The new database server and backup server is implemented as a separated segment in the LAN. The separation is done through the router. The switches that connect Accounting and human resource department, Sales department and Warehouse department connects to a central switch, which in return connects to the router. Database server and Backup server connects to a switch, which in return connects to the router which also has the built-in firewall capability. The router segments the database section of the LAN form the other sections. This way it helps to reduce the congestion in the Local LAN. It helps faster access to database within the Colombo LAN itself as well as faster processing for incoming queries that are coming from other branches through WAN. The addition of the firewall protects the internal LAN form unauthorized access. This helps to protect the data of the company. The backup server provides continuous back up facility to the database. It helps to recover database in an event of a failure of the main database. New LAN Architecture of Mumbai Site Mumbai branch function as the second important branch after Colombo head office. Furthermore with managements intention to expand it in future to facilitate more storage and attain more sales targets that covers a larger customer base, makes it essential to have a good infrastructure in the LAN at Mumbai branch. For this purpose, Mumbai branch LAN also revamped as shown in the following figure to facilitate the functions of new distributed database and future additions. Mumbai branch LAN also revamped with an architecture similar to that of the Colombo LAN. The old network topology of Token Ring based architecture is replaced with a new STAR Topology Gigabit Ethernet. Gigabit Ethernet provide the faster access to data within the LAN, which is much need in day to day communication within the organization. Furthermore it lays the foundation to future expected expansions to the Branch. The router segments the LAN area consisting of distributed database from that of the other areas of the LAN. This helps to prevent congestion and improves the data transfer efficiency of the LAN as well as providing faster a access to data for both local and distributed queries. The router is equipped with a built in firewall which protects the internal LAN from unauthorized access, thus protects the valuable data of Infinity computer systems. Database server is connected to a backup server which backs up the data of the main database server. It helps to recover the main server in an event of a failure. New LAN Architecture of Kandy Site Kandy branch also revamped to facilitate the new changes to the database system. The architecture of the LAN is nearly similar to that of the other two branches. following figure shows the new architecture. The most notable addition to Kandy branch is the addition of the T1 line which replaced the previous ISDN line that connects the branch LAN to the company WAN. The T1 line provides the faster access to distributed data as well as internet. This makes it easier for all branches as it provides same speed of access to all three branches data without creating any bottle necks. The LAN is designed as a Gigabit LAN using a Star topology which provides fast data transmission within the LAN. The router has built-in firewall which protects the internal LAN form intrusions. The database server section of the LAN is segmented using the router. This helps to control the congestion and allows the faster access to data for local and distributed queries. Backup database server provide data backup functionality for main database server which helps in quick recovery of the main database server in an event of a failure. New Features of the Proposed WAN Network architecture and Distributed System There are few new features were introduced to the existing WAN network to make it compatible with Distributed database system and address certain security holes that presented in the existing WAN. Firewalls have been introduced to each local site to protect each LANs of all three branches. This feature address the issue of network being exposed to Worms and hackers threats. Firewalls block malicious traffic that are not authorized to enter any segment of the Infinity computer system network while allowing legitimate traffic to access any part of the network ISDN line that connected Kandy branch to the WAN has been replaced with a high bandwidth T1 line. This allows the distributed queries to access Kandy branch data at the same speed as the of the other two branches; Colombo and Kandy as well as Mumbai branch being benefitted from accessing the other two sites data much faster than the existing ISDN line. Each LAN of all three branches have been introduced with a new LAN segment which consists of distributed database and processing systems and it was segmented through the router to reduce the congestion so that both local and remote data traffic gets the ability to access the database faster. Security Enhancements Provided by New System The new system is designed to provide encryption for user authentication data. This prevents the data interceptors from understanding the data related to user authentication and authorization. The proposed system is designed with a multi level security control system. Multilevel security controls ensure users cleared at different security level access and share the companys distributed database in which data is assigned different security levels. This prevents the lower level staff from gaining access to data that are not relevant to them and it ensure the security of the data. Advantages of the New Database System There are number of advantages of the new distributed database system. The most significant advantage of the new system is, speed. with having locally available database for each branch there is no longer a need to connect to the Colombo head office database during day to day operations giving fast access to data that is located at each branch LAN. Fast access to database means rapid operations in all task in the company environment as well as quick service for customers. Having redundant data in two company branches apart from Colombo head office means higher availability. Even if a failure occur in the main branch database, it has the ability to quickly recover from the regional branches. In the same manner should a failure occur in a regional branch database, it has the ability to recover from main database in Colombo branch with minimal downtime. The distributed architecture of the database reduce the strain on the main database servers as workstations connected each branchs database server shares the processing workload between them. this result in faster processing of queries. There will be a tremendous reduction in network traffic as well. In the old configuration, company WAN was highly utilized for database traffic. specially Colombo branch received a huge amount of database traffic every day. with the new configuration, branch offices are no longer needed to utilize the WAN to access database. This frees up the WAN traffic and allow all branches to utilize it for other more critical tasks. As the database query processing is distributed between branches, there is no longer a need to maintain high cost high-end servers for processing. This reduces company expenditure in long run. New database system provides the ability to expand both in quantity and processing power. This provides the platform to carry out planned expansions for Mumbai branch without having to worry about recourses and infrastructure. Removal of Reliance on a Central Site. In the existing centralized system, both remote branches of the company as well as Colombo branch is depend on same database that is located in Colombo. But the proposed system eliminates this reliance and provide a independent database system for each branch with the ability of also connecting with the databases of the other branches through the Distributed database management system and eliminates single site of failures. With fragments as the unit of distribution in the new architecture, a transaction can be divided in to several sub queries that operates on fragments. This increases the degree of concurrency or parallelism in the system. Possible Problems in the New Architecture Complexity The new distributes database system hides the distributed nature of the system from the user. Though it provides an acceptable level of performance, reliability and availability is more complex than the existing centralized database architecture. The fact that certain data, specially Colombo and Mumbai stocks related data are replicated in Colombo and Mumbai branches, ads an extra level of complexity when dealing with synchronization between these elements. So the software must be designed to handle the data replication adequately, if not it will lead to degradation of availability, reliability and overall performance of the entire system. Cost The increased complexity of the new distributed database architecture leads to higher costs in hardware and software resources as well as maintenance costs. Difficulties in integrity control Validity and consistency of stored data is referred to as Database integrity. Integrity is usually is expressed in terms of constraints, which are consistency rules that DBMS is not allowed to violate. Enforcing integrity constraints requires that defines the constrains but that are not related to actual update operation itself. In a Distributed DBMS environment like the proposed Infinity computer systems architecture, the processing and communication cost that are required to enforce such integrity constraints may be prohibitive. Security Unlike the centralized DBMS system which the access can easily be controlled, new Distributed database system which consists of fragmented and replicated data which are located at multiple sites, the security control is more challenging. Furthermore the network itself needs to be made secure in order to protect the data that travel between three branches. CHAPTER 3 Detailed structure and functionality of distributed database In this chapter, structure of the distributed database of infinity computer systems and the functionality of the distributed components will be discussed in greater detail. Table Format There are three major tables used in the database architecture. They are Employees, sales and stocks. Following is the table format for each table. As shown in the figure 7, Employees, Sales and Stocks tables are fragmented and located at all three branches according to the relevance of the site where the data is accessed most often. This architecture make the data access time faster and keep the communication costs down. Furthermore data of the Stocks_CMB, are vertically fragmented and located at the Mumbai branch database site with the table name of Stocks_CMB_FRG. During the fragmentaion of Stock_CMB all attributes of the Stock_CMB table were allocated in to Stocks_CMB_FRG except UNITPRICE attribute, because it is irrelevant to INDIAN territory thus it reduce the wastage of storage space due to repetition of irrelevant data. The purpose of allocating Colombo head office Stock data in the Mumbai site is to allow faster access because Mumbai branch of Infinity computer systems, run its own warehouse and deal with manufacturers and suppliers directly. This makes it important fir Mumbai branch have the ability to access the Colombo stock data very often and quickly so that both branches can maintain a healthy stock for everyday business. Colombo branch retains a copy of the Stocks tables related to Mumbai site as well as maintaining its own stock table related to Colombo stocks. In this new design, Sto ck_MBI table that is located in the Colombo head office site is configured to synchronize with Stock_MBI table, two times a day, during midday and then at the end of the working day. In a nutshell, following is the way the database is distributed across three branches. Employees and Sales Tables that were previously located in the Colombo branch, were fragmented according to the relevancy where data items are physically belong and located at their relevant branches. Stock_MBI is replicated at Mumbai (Stock_MBI_LCL) site while retaining a exact copy in Colombo branch Stock_KDY table is transferred to Kandy site from its previous position of Colombo Stock_CMB table is Vertically fragmented and located a copy at Mumbai branch. Data Allocation Method There are four methods to consider when choosing a data allocation method for proposed distributed database architecture for Infinity computer systems. They are, Centralized Fragmented Complete Replication Selective Replication Out of the above methods, we use Selective Replication as the data allocation method for proposed distributed database architecture. Selective Replication is a combination of Fragmentation, replication and centralized data allocation methods. In this method some data items are fragmented to maximize high locality of reference and others, which are used at many sites and are not frequently updated, are replicated; otherwise data items are centralized. This approach gives combination of advantages of all the other three methods. Using the selective replication method, we will only be distributing data related to Kandy and Mumbai branch to their respective branches while keeping a main database at Colombo branch which will consist of records related to all branches. This will serve as a redundant database as well as a central repository where all data related to companys all three branches can be easily retrieved. Following section describes how the above distribution was done by using relational algebra. Fragmentation of Database for Allocation of Data at Various Sites When distributing a database across multiple sites, one of the main factors need to consider is the fragmentation of database items such as Tables. Fragmentation consists of breaking a relation in to smaller relations or fragments and storing the fragments at different sites. By fragmenting, data can be distributed to the sites where they used more often. There are two approaches to distribute database elements across multiple sites. They are, Distribute one copy of each database table in all sites Distribute portions of the selected tables that are important to local sites In our company case we will be using the second method mentioned above. In that method we will be distributing only the data in the three main tables that are related to each site (Branch). When fragmenting data in a table there are three techniques used. They are, Horizontal fragmentation Vertical fragmentation Hybrid fragmentation For our company distributed database we use both horizontal and vertical fragmentation to distribute table data among three branches. More precisely, For Employee table and Sales table we use Horizontal fragmentation and for Stocks_CMB table we use Vertical Fragmentation. The reason for using vertical fragmentation for stock table is because Mumbai branch deals with manufacturers and other vendors who provides hardware and software stocks directly to Mumbai branch. Horizontal Fragmentation In horizontal fragmentation, certain rows of the tables are put in to a base relation at one site, and other rows are put in to a base relation at another site. In other words, the rows (tuples) of a relation are distributed to many sites as disjointed fragments. In infinity computer systems database, we use the horizontal fragmentation as follows, to fragment Employees and sales tables. When selecting the criteria to horizontally fragment the Employees and Sales tables is the relevance of data to the location. As shown above, the current employee table, we fragment by considering the BRCODE field. BRCODE indicates the branch where the employee works. By doing so we can build three new tables out of the above database table and allocate them to each of the 3 branches of the company. We can horizontally fragment employees table in to 3 separate logically related tables as follows. Using relational algebra to do the horizontal fragmentation of Employees table To do the above horizontal fragmentation of employees table in to three tables we can use relational algebra SELECT operation. Our intention is to fragment the table in to three small fragments so each table would contain Employees related to their respective branch. To achieve this, Relational algebra operations are, Employees_CMB = SELECT(Employees_Table) WHERE BRCODE = CMB Employees_MBI = SELECT(Employees_Table) WHERE BRCODE = MBI Employees_KDY = SELECT(EMP_TABLE) WHERE BRCODE = KDY Executing the above three formulas results in following three table fragments: Employees_CMB (contains 2 tuples) Employees_MBI (contains 2 tuples) Employees_KDY (contains 1 tuple) Relational algebra operation for fragmenting Sales Table We can divide sales tables in to three fragments through the SELECT algebra operation as follows and it will result in three tables containing sales data related to each of the three branches. Sales_CMB = SELECT(Sales_Table) WHERE BRCODE = CMB Sales_MBI = SELECT(Sales _Table) WHERE BRCODE = MBI Sales_KDY = SELECT(Sales _Table) WHERE BRCODE = KDY Vertical Fragmentation Vertical Fragmentation works by splitting a table between attributes. Vertical fragmentation is used in situations where some sites needed to access the attributes of the tables of many data items in a table. This fragmentation is more difficult than horizontal fragmentation as more options exist. The fragmentation can be achieved by either Grouping attributes to fragments or Splitting relations in to fragments For fragment Colmbo branchs Stock_CMB Table, we use the first method mentioned above. Relational algebra operation for Vertical fragmentation of Sales_CMB Table For vertical fragmentation, relational algebra Project operation is used. We fragment the above table to form a new table called Stocks_CMB_FRG. This new table will contain all the attributes of the above table except UNITPRICE. Following is the relational algebra Project operation. Stocks_CMB_FRG = PROJECT(Stocks_CMB) TOCKCODE, ITEMNO, QTY, S LASTIN, NEXTIN Executing the above operation will result in creating the following table. Stocks_CMB_FRG Data Model The data model consists of three layers called schemas. Each schema defines a set of views that database can be seen. The three schemas are, External schema layer Represents the view of the database that users and/or applications might see Conceptual schema layer At this level the database objects such as tables, columns, views, and indexes are defined. These definitions provide mappings to the next level of the model, which is where the physical layout of the database is defined. Internal schema layer This layer defines the actual layout of the records and fields. Distributed databases of all three branches are modeled according the above structure and all three branches maintain their own set of the above model. In local sites, when users access the data stored locally, they access them as defined in the external Views. Conceptual schema maps the logical structure of the tables to Internal Schema which defines the physical storage of data on the discs. 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